An introduction to Social Policy

Education and social policy

Education

Education is principally identified with schooling, though in theory it extends far beyond this, being concerned with intellectual and social development. The main emphasis within this is on children, though there is clearly scope for education for all and 'lifelong learning'.

Education has been particularly significant as an instrument of social policy, in the sense not only of policies for welfare but also as policies intended to deal with the structure of society. The aims of education include:

• Liberal education: the development of each individual intellectually and socially to that person's fullest potential
• Socialisation: education is a method of transmission of social norms and values. This is also sometimes seen as a form of social control.
• Education as 'handmaiden': the education system serves the industrial process and the economy by producing a trained workforce, and by providing childminding services.

• Social change (or 'social engineering'). The education system has been seen as a means of bringing about social change.

Finch refers to the use of education as a vehicle for other types of social policy. Education provides a convenient basis for policy for children because of its universal coverage, the acceptance of responsibility for children's welfare, and because it has been easy to justify welfare measures in educational terms. [1]

External link: World data on education

Models of education

A Montessori school, 1946. This was one of the pioneers of 'progressive' teaching methods. (c) Hulton-Getty collection.

Four educational models have been influential in Europe.

• Humanism . Humanism is moral and individualistic.
• Encyclopaedism . Education is seen as based in a body of knowledge which people share. The approach is rationalist and based in the utility of education.
• Vocationalism. This is linked to the needs of the economy and the application of education to practical issues. Education is differentiated for different groups of people.
• Naturalism . This views education as development of the whole person, emphasising child-centred learning and the school as a community.

The dominant models in the UK have been humanism for the elite, and vocationalism for others. French education is encyclopaedist; Danish education is naturalist.

Educational disadvantage

There are several types of explanation for the origins of educational disadvantage.

• Pathological views . Pathological explanations relate to individual characteristics or behaviour. Some writers take the view that as intelligence is largely genetically determined, no amount of education is likely to make a difference in achieved performance.
• Transmitted deprivation . Poor educational attainment is sometimes attributed to upbringing. Studies of intergenerational continuity have found that, contrary to 'common sense' opinion, most children of disadvantaged parents are not themselves subsequently disadvantaged. [2]
• Home based factors . Material deprivation affects schooling through poor health, lack of resources (like books and toys) and lack of facilities (like a quiet space for study). Family size and environment can affect the degree of stimulation a child receives and so development.
• School factors . Disadvantage may arise from the failure of schools to respond to needs. Problems include low resources, limited curriculum, and low teacher expectations, and these are reinforced by streaming, the restrictive examination system, and high teacher turnover. Despite the importance of home background, good schools can make a difference.

• Structural views. Structural theories relate educational disadvantage to the structure of society. Class disadvantages and poverty are reflected in educational attainment because of the combination of home and school factors.

Education policy in the UK

Free elementary education was introduced in England in 1870; secondary schools were fee-paying until 1944. 80% of children left after elementary education, which after 1918 finished at 14. The 1944 Education Act introduced free secondary education.

The dominant principle was the pursuit of equality. The system was based on a 'tripartite' structure, distinguishing grammar, technical and secondary modern. Within these schools there was to be 'parity of esteem'. In practice, there were few technical schools, which meant the system was more 'bipartite' than 'tripartite'. Since grammar schools were selective, and secondary moderns took the rest, there was never 'parity of esteem'.

Non-selective or 'comprehensive' schools were introduced gradually, but comprehensive education became government policy in the 1960s. The arguments for and against comprehensive education have been confused with other arguments about educational methods and the purposes of education. The main arguments for comprehensives are they reduce the likelihood of discrimination or disadvantage on the basis of class , and that they improve the prospects of children of middling ability. The main argument against is that the selective system may be more consistent with the idea of equality of opportunity. Working class children who went to grammar schools did better than those who go now to comprehensive schools.

Educational standards

A series of conservative critiques of the education system in the 1970s argued that

• the abandonment of selection had been destructive;
• discipline in schools had been eroded; and

• new teaching methods had failed.

By contrast, the schools inspectorate (subsequently Ofsted in England and Wales) made a very different set of criticisms of schooling:

• Comprehensives had imitated grammar schools instead of developing their own kind of curriculum.
• Exams dominated the curriculum unreasonably.

• Virtually all schools let down the less able pupils.

Most schools have no problem of discipline (though recent Ofsted reports comment on some deterioration in standards in secondary schools). The most common problem, identified in a fifth of schools, is truancy which is condoned by parents.

Reforms in education

There have been three main trends in recent reforms.

• Centralisation. The Conservative government in the 1980s and 1990s introduced national assessments, and for the first time a national curriculum, shifting the locus of control from the school to the government.
• Assessment by outcomes. A series of measures have emphasised outcomes, measured in targets and performance criteria, rather than educational processes. This reflects a more general trend in government. The national assessments, and intermittent use of league tables, are examples.
• The use of "initiatives". "Initiatives" have the advantage, for government, that they allow for earmarked funding - the money cannot be used for other purposes - and that they allow governments to be selective in what they pay for and where. There has also been a plethora of further initiatives geared to greater inclusion, employability and "lifelong learning". There has been some criticism of potential "initiative overload".

The same trends are apparent in Scottish education as in England and Wales.

References

1. J Finch, 1984, Education as social policy, Longmans.
2. M Brown, N Madge. 1983, Despite the welfare state, Heinemann.

Further reading

A Halsey, H Lauder, P Brown, A Wells (eds), Education: culture, economy ,society, Oxford University Press 1997.